The basic tenet of this theoretical
framework is that a major determinant of human behavior is the beliefs,
expectations, and anticipations individuals have concerning future events. Behavior
is thus seen as purposeful, goal-directed, and based on conscious intentions.
Two of the most prominent early researchers who developed such cognitive
approaches were Tolman and Lewin.
While Tolman studied animal behavior and
Lewin human behavior, both took the position that organisms make conscious
decisions concerning future behavior on the basis of cues from their
environment. Such a theory is largely ahistorical
in nature (as opposed to the historical notion inherent in drive theory,
discussed in an earlier section). Tolman (1932) argued, for example, that
learning results more from changes in beliefs about the environment than from
changes in the strengths of past habits. Cognitive theorists did not entirely
reject the concept that past events may be important for present behavior,
however. Lewin (1938), whose work is characterized by an ahistorical approach,
noted that historical and ahistorical approaches were in some ways
complementary. Past occurrences could have an impact on present behavior to the
extent that they modified present conditions. For example, the. passt
experience of a child who burned a finger on a hot stove may very likely carry
over into the present to influence behavior. In general, however, the cognitive
theorists posited that it is the "events of the day" that largely
influence behavior; past events are important only to the extent that they
affect present and future beliefs and expectations.
In general, cognitive theories of
motivation or expectancy/valence theories (also called
"instrumentality" theories), as they later became known—view
motivational force as a multiplicative function of two key variables:
expectancies and valences. "Expectancies" were seen by Lewin (1938)
and Tolman (1959) as beliefs individuals had that particular actions on their
part would lead to certain outcomes. "Valence" denoted the amount of
positive or negative value placed on anticipated
outcomes by an individual.
Typically, the early cognitive theories were
developed to have general applications. Later, however, cognitive-type models
were produced specifically for use in work situations. Two of these process
theories will be discussed next.