This
theory has generated a considerable body of research, much of which suggests
that difficulties are encountered when testing the model (Harrell & Stahl,
1986; Miner, 1980). One problem involves the concept of effort, or motivation,
itself. As noted above, the theory attempts to predict the amount of effort
that the individual will expend on one or more tasks. However, there is limited
agreement about the meaning of effort.
Further, expectancy theory, as a process
theory, does not specify which outcomes are relevant to a particular individual
in a particular situation. Each researcher has tended to address this issue in
a unique way. Consequently, no systematic approach has been used across
investigations. In addition, and especially important, the expectancy approach
contains the implicit assumption that motivation is a conscious rational
choice process. That is, individuals are assumed consciously to calculate the
pleasure or pain that they expect to attain or avoid when making a choice. However,
it is generally accepted that individuals are not always conscious of their
motives, expectancies, and perceptual processes. Yet expectancy theory tends
to ignore habitual behavior and subconscious motivation.