McClelland's Learned Needs Theory
Another well-known content theory is the learned needs theory developed by McClelland (1961, 1962, 1965a, 1965b, 1971). He contends that individuals acquire certain needs from the culture of a society by learning from the events that they experience, particularly in early life. Four of the needs that people may learn are the need for achievement (n Ach), the need for power (n Pow), the need for affiliation (n Aff), and the need for autonomy (n Aut). Once learned, these needs may be regarded as personal predispositions that affect the way people perceive work (and other) situations and that influence their pursuit of certain goals.
Need for Achievement (n Ach)
McClelland defined n Ach as "behavior toward competition with a standard of excellence" (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953). He and his associates conducted their most thorough series of studies on this particular learned need, and identified four characteristics of individuals with a high need for achievement: (1) a strong desire to assume personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems or performing a task, (2) a tendency to set moderately difficult achievement goals and to take calculated risks, (3) a strong desire for concrete performance feedback on tasks, and (4) a single-minded preoccupation with task accomplishment.
The need for achievement is perhaps the most prominent learned need from the standpoint of studying organizational behavior. The challenging nature of a difficult task cues that motive, which, in turn, activates achievement-oriented behavior. Many managerial and entrepreneurial positions are assumed to require such a need in individuals in order for them to be successful. However, when people with a high n Ach are given routine or unchallenging jobs, the achievement motive will probably not be activated. Therefore, there would be little reason to expect individuals with a high n Ach to perform in a superior fashion in such situations (McClelland, 1961).
Need for Power (n Pow)
The n Pow is defined as the need to control the environment, to influence the behavior of others, and to be responsible for them. McClelland contends that individuals with a high n Pow may be characterized by: (1) a desire to direct and control someone else, and (2) a concern for maintaining leader-follower relations. Research evidence suggests that individuals with high n Pow tend to be superior performers, to be in supervisor positions, to have above- average attendance records, and to be rated by others as having good leadership abilities (Steers & Braunstein, 1976).
Need for Affiliation (n Aff)
The need for affiliation is defined as an "attraction to another organism in order to feel reassured from the other that the self is acceptable" (Birch & Veroff, 1966). Individuals with a high n Aff desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relationships with others. McClelland identified three characteristics of individuals with a high need for affiliation: (1) a strong desire for approval and reassurance from others, (2) a tendency to conform to the wishes and norms of others when pressured by people whose friendship they value, and (3) a sincere interest in the feelings of others.
People who have a high n Aff prefer to work with others rather than to work alone. Therefore, high n Aff individuals tend to take jobs characterized by a high amount of interpersonal contact, such as sales, teaching, public relations, and counseling. There is some evidence to suggest that employees with high n Aff have better attendance records than those with low n Aff (Birch & Veroff, 1966). In addition, some research findings indicate that employees with a high n Aff perform somewhat better in situations where personal support and approval are tied to performance (Chung, 1977; French, 1958).
The organizational implications of the n Aff appear to be fairly clear. McClelland's theory would suggest that n Aff employees will be productive to the extent that supervisors can create a cooperative, supportive work environment where positive feedback is tied to task performance. The explanation for this is that by working hard in such an environment, an individuals with a high n Aff can satisfy his or her affiliation needs.
Need for Autonomy (n Aut)
Need for autonomy is defined as a desire for independence. Individuals with a high n Aut want to work alone, prefer to control their own workplace, and do not want to be hampered by excessive rules or procedures (Birch & Veroff, 1966). Research has found that individuals with a high n Aut tend not to be committed to the goals and objectives of their organizations, not to perform well unless they are allowed to participate in the determination of their tasks, and not to respond to external pressures for conformity to group norms.
Evaluation of McClelland's Learned Needs Theory
Most research evidence offered in support of McClelland's learned needs theory has been provided by McClelland or his associates, with the need for achievement receiving most of the attention from other organizational behavior theorists and researchers. Over the years, there have been a number of serious criticisms of McClelland's work. First, it is argued that the primary research instrument (a projective psychological test called the TAT) used in the studies by McClelland and his colleagues has questionable predictive validity. Second, McClelland's claim that needs, especially n Ach, can be learned by adults conflicts with a large body of literature stating that motives are normally acquired in childhood and that they are difficult to alter in adulthood. McClelland (1962) recognizes this problem but points to evidence from politics and religion that suggests otherwise. Third, McClelland's notion of acquired needs is questioned by some scholars on the grounds that needs may not be acquired permanently.
Despite these and other criticisms of McClelland's research and theory, the concept of learned or acquired needs is an important one and has clear applicability to organizational and work settings. It emphasizes, to use psychology terminology, that nurture—that is, what kinds of life circumstances people encounter and experience—is as important as nature— that is, what people are "born with"—in understanding what motivates human behavior.